Glossary
名詞解釋
Based on Lightbown &
Spada (1999),
How Language are
Learned (2nd
ed.)
A
Accuracy Order
(正確語法習得順序):
The relative accuracy of grammatical forms in learner language. For
example, learners are often more accurate in using plural-s than in
using possessive -‘s. Some researchers have inferred that an
accuracy order is equivalent to a sequence of acquisition.
Acquisition-learning Hypothesis
(語言習得與學習假說):
According to Krashen, there are two ways for adult second language
learners to develop knowledge of a second language: “acquisition”
and “learning”. “Acquisition” refers to the way learners are exposed
to samples of the second language which they understand, very much
the same as children pick up their first language, with no conscious
attention to language form. “Learning” refers to a conscious process
of study ad attention to form and rule learning. In his view,
learning cannot turn into acquisition.
Additive
Bilingualism
(正向雙語學習):
Second language learning that adds to the learner’s capabilities.
That is, learning a second language is helpful to the learner’s
language development in general (cf.
Subtractive Bilingualism).
Affect Filter
Hypothesis
(情緒、態度影響語言學習假說):
Krashen asserts that there is an imaginary barrier – “affective
filter” - which prevents learners from acquiring language from the
available input. “Affect” refers to such things as motives, needs,
attitudes, and emotional states. A learner who is tense, angry,
anxious, or bored may “filter out” input, making it unavailable for
acquisition.
American Sign
Language (ASL)
(美國手語):
The gestural language used by many North Americans who are deaf or
who interact with deaf persons. It is a true language, with complex
rules of structure and a rich vocabulary, all expressed through
motions of the hands and body.
Aptitude
(天賦或性向):
Aptitude is natural ability, referring to potential for achievement.
Therefore, an aptitude test is designed to make a prediction about an
individual’s future achievements. According to the Modern Language
Aptitude Test (MLAT) and the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB),
the language aptitude is composed of four different types of
abilities: 1) the ability to identify and memorize new sounds, 2)
the ability to understand the function of particular words in
sentences, 3) the ability to figure out grammatical rules from
language samples, and 4) memory for new words (cf.
intelligence).
Audiolingual Approach
(聽說教學法):
Audiolingual teaching is based on the behaviorist theory of learning
and on structural linguists. This instructional approach emphasizes
the formation of habits through the practice, memorization, and
repetition of grammatical structures in isolation from each other
and from contexts of meaningful use.
Behaviorism
(行為學派):
A psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or
non-verbal, takes place through the establishment of habits.
According to this view, when learners imitate and repeat the
language they hear in their surrounding environment and are
positively reinforced for doing so, habit formation (or learning)
occurs.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)
(人際溝通基本語言能力):
Jim Cummins (1979) proposed a distinction between
social/conversational language acquisition (BICS) and
academic/cognitive language acquisition (CALP). Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills (BICS) are language skills needed in social
interactions that are context embedded. It is the day-to-day
conversational language needed to interact socially with other
people. Language learners employ BICS when they are on the
playground, in the lunch room, on the school bus, at parties,
playing sports, or talking on the telephone. BICS usually
involves the use of informal language and is not very cognitively
demanding (cf. CALP).
C
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
(CALP) (認知及學業語言能力):
Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) refers to language skills
needed in
academic learning
and test taking that focus on form rather than on meaning.
This includes
listening, speaking, reading, and writing about subject area content
material. Academic language acquisition isn't just the understanding
of content area vocabulary. It also includes skills such as
comparing, classifying, synthesizing, evaluating, and inferring.
Academic language tasks are context reduced and become more
cognitively demanding (cf.
BICS).
Child-directed
Speech
(對兒童使用的簡化性言語):
The language which caretakers address to children. In some cases,
this language is simpler than that which is addressed to adults and
also may involve slower speech, more repetition, and a large number
of questions.
Classroom
Observation Scheme
(教室行為觀察表):
A tool (often in the form of a grid) which consists of a set of
predetermined categories to describe teaching and learning
behaviors.
Cognitive
Maturity
(認知成熟度):
The ability to engage in problem-solving, deduction, and complex
memory tasks.
Communicative
Competence
(溝通能力):
The ability to use language in a variety of settings, taking into
account relationships between speakers and differences in
situations. The term has sometimes been interpreted as the ability
to convey messages in spite of a lack of grammatical accuracy.
Communicative
Language Teaching (CLT)
(溝通式教學法):
CLT is based on the premise that successful language learning
involves not only a knowledge of the structures and forms of a
language, but also the functions and purposes that a language serves
in different communicative settings. This approach to teaching
emphasizes the communications of meaning over the practice and
manipulation of grammatical forms.
Competence
(語言能力):
Chomsky used this term to refer to knowledge of language. This is
contrasted with
Performance, which is the way a person actually uses
language – whether for speaking, listening, or writing. Because we
cannot observe competence directly, we have to infer its nature from
performance.
Comprehensible
Input (可理解性之語言輸入):
A term introduced by Krashen to refer to language which a learner
can understand. The language may be comprehensible in part because
of clues such gestures, situations, or prior information.
Comprehension-based Instruction
(以理解為主之教學):
A general term to describe a variety of second language programs in
which the focus of instruction is on comprehension rather than
production (for example,
Total Physical Response).
Connectionism
(連結論):
A theory which views language as a complex system of units which
become interconnected in the mind as they are encountered together.
The more often units are heard or seen together, the more likely it
is that the presence of one will lead to the activation of the
other.
Content-based
Instruction
(以學科內容為主之教學):
Second language programs in which lessons are organized around
topics, themes, and/or subject-matter rather than language points
(for example,
immersion programs).
Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)
(對比分析假說):
The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first
and second languages, the learner will acquire second language
structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will
have difficulty.
Control Group
(對照組):
In experimental studies, a group of learners which, ideally, differs
from the experimental group only inters of the single factor which
the researcher is investigating. Performance of the control group
is used to show that the factor in questions is the best (or only
explanation for changes in the experimental group.
Corrective Feedback
(錯誤糾正):
An indication to a learner that his or her use of the target
language is incorrect. This includes a variety of responses that a
language learner receives. Corrective feedback can be explicit (for
example, ‘No, you should say “goes”, not “go”) or implicit (for
example, ‘Yes, he goes to school every day’), and may or may not
include metalinguistic information (for example, ‘Don’t forget to
make the verb agree with the subject’).
Correlation
(相關性):
A statistical procedure which compares the frequency or size of
different factors in order to determine whether there is a
relationship between the two. For example, if the students with
highest grades in French also spend the greatest number of hours
doing their homework, this would be a positive correlation. It is
important to keep in mind, however, that correlation does not imply
that one of the variables causes the other. Successful learners may
spend more time on homework because it gives them a feeling of
accomplishment.
Creative
Construction
(創造性建構理論):
A theory that second language acquisition is a process by which a
learner constructs his/her own rule system (i.e. internal
representations) for the language being learned. These internal
representations are thought to develop slowly in the direction of
the full second language system in predictable stages. Creative
construction emphasizes the similarity of learners from the
different first language backgrounds and minimizes the importance of
transfer.
Critical Period
Hypothesis (CPH)
(關鍵期假說):
The proposal that there is a specific and limited time period for
language acquisition. There are two versions of the CPH. The
strong version is that if a language is not learned by puberty the
biological endowment which permits successful language acquisition
will not be available. Thus the learner will have to use general
learning mechanisms which are not designed for language acquisition
and thus not as successful. The weak version is that, even though
the same learning mechanisms are involved, second language learning
will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty because most
learners have neither the time nor the motivation to reach the high
level of mastery which a child reaches.
Cross-sectional Study
(橫切面研究，即對不同實驗對象在同一時間點進行研究):
A research method in which subjects at different ages and stages of
development are studied. Inferences about sequences which would
apply to the development of individual learners are sometimes drawn
from cross-sectional studies. This contrasts with
longitudinal studies.
Descriptive
Study
(敘述性研究):
Research which does not involve any manipulation, change, or
intervention in the phenomenon being studied. The researchers’ goal
is to observe and record what is happening. This contrasts with
experimental study.
Developmental
Error (語言發展過程之錯誤):
An error in learner language which does not result from first
language influence but rather reflects the learners’ gradual
discovery of the second language system. These errors are often
similar to those made by children learning the language as their
mother tongue.
Developmental
Features
(語言發展過程之語言特質):
Those aspects of a language which, according to Pienemann and his
colleagues, develop in a particular sequence, regardless of input
variation or instructional intervention (cf.
variational features).
Developmental
Sequences
(語言發展順序):
The order in which certain features of a language (for example,
negation) are acquired in language learning. Also called
developmental stages.
Display Question
(展示性問題，即已知答案之問題):
A question to which the asker already knows the answer. Teachers
often ask these questions (for example, ‘What color is your shirt?’)
not because they are genuinely interested in the answer, but rather,
to get the learner to display his or her knowledge of the langue.
E
Enhanced Input
(以強調方式輸入):
Input which is altered in an effort to make it more salient to
learners. It can be more or less explicit, ranging from explicit
metalinguistic comments to typographical enhancement (boldtype or
underlining) or exaggerated stress in speaking.
Error Analysis
(錯誤分析)
: A detailed analysis of second language learners’ errors. Error
analysis differs from
contrastive analysis in that it does not set out to predict
errors. Rather, it seeks to discover and describe different kinds of
errors to understand how learners process second language data.
ESL
(英語為第二語言):
English as a Second Language. This refers to the learning of
English for use in a setting where English is the principal language
(for example, immigrants learning English in Britain).
Experimental Study
(實驗性研究):
Research which is designed to study the role or impact of one or
more very specific variables. A strictly experimental study would
have ‘experimental’ and ‘control’ groups which differ from each
other only in the presence or absence of one variable. In
educational research, it is often difficult to create all of the
conditions which permit a study to be termed as a ‘genuine’
experimental study. In this book, the term is used in a
non-technical sense to refer to research in which an attempt has
been made to investigate a single variable in an educational
setting.
Field-independent / Field-dependent
(場域獨立/依賴):
This distinction has been used to describe people who differ in
their tendency to see the ‘trees in the forest’. That is, some
people (called ‘field independent’) are very quick to pick out the
hidden figures in a complicated drawing. Others (called ‘field
dependent’) are more inclined to see the whole drawing and have
difficulty separating it into parts.
First Language
(Mother Tongue, Native Language, L1)
(第一語言;母語):
The language first learned. Many children learn more than one
language from birth and may be said to have more than one mother
tongue. The abbreviation L1 is often used.
Foreigner Talk
(母語使用者對不精通該語的外國人使用的簡化性言語):
The modified or simplified language which some native speakers
address to second learners. A special category of foreigner talk is
teacher talk.
Foreign Language
Learning
(外語學習):
This refers to the learning of a second (or third, or fourth)
language in a context where the target language is not widely used
in the community (for example, learning French in China). This is
often contrasted with second language learning, i.e. where the
language being learned is used in the target language community (for
example, learning Italian in Florence).
Formal Language
Learning Setting
(正式的語言學習環境):
A setting in which second language learners receive instruction and
opportunities to practice. In this contexts, efforts are often made
to develop the learner’s awareness of how the language system
works. Typically, this type of learning takes place in the
classroom.
Form-focused
Instruction
(以語言形式為主之教學):
Instruction which draws attention to the forms and structures of the
language within the context of communicative interaction. This may
be done by giving metalinguistic information, simply highlighting
the form in question, or by providing
corrective feedback.
Formulaic
Patterns
or Routines
(慣用語;公式化用語):
These are expressions which are learned as unanalyzed wholes of
‘chunks’ (for example, ‘How old are you?’).
Fossilization
(僵化):
Interlanguage patterns which seem not to change, even after extended
exposure to or instruction in the target language. The term may
also be used to refer to errors which occur, somewhat unexpectedly,
in the second language performance of proficient speakers when they
are tired or under pressure.
Genuine Question
(真實性問題):
In contrast to
display questions, genuine questions are asked when there is
a focus on information: the asker does not know the answer in
advance (for example, ‘What did you do at the weekend?’).
Grammar-Translation Approach
(文法翻譯教學法):
An approach to second language teaching which is characterized by
the explicit instruction of grammatical rules and language analysis
through the use of translation.
Grammatical
Morphemes
(語法詞素):
When talking about ‘grammatical morphemes’, we usually refer to
smaller units which are added to words to alter their meaning (for
example, the -s in books to indicate plural) or function words (for
example, ‘the’) which are ordinarily attached to another word.
Immersion
Program
(沉浸式教學):
An educational program in which a second language is taught via
content-based instruction. That is, students study subjects
such as mathematics and social studies in their second language. In
these programs, the emphasis in on subject matter learning, and
little time is spent focusing on the formal aspects of the second
language. Typically, students in immersion programs all share the
same first language.
Informal
Language Learning Setting
(非正式語言學習環境):
A setting in which the second language is not taught, but rather, is
learned naturally, i.e. ‘on the job’ or ‘in the streets’, through
informal conversations and interactions with native speakers of the
language being learned.
Information
Processing
(訊息處理):
This psychological theory compares the human brain to a computer. It
includes the idea that the brain has a very large capacity to store
information in the long term, but a more limited capacity for
information which requires our attention. After a certain amount of
practice, things which at first required attention become automatic,
leaving more attention available for focus on something else.
Innatism
(天賦論):
A theory that human beings are born with some basic knowledge about
languages in general that makes it possible to learn the specific
language of the environment.
Input
(輸入的語言):
The language which the learner is exposed to (either written or
spoken) in the environment.
Input Hypothesis
(語言輸入假說):
Krashen asserts that one acquires language in only one way – by
exposure to
comprehensible input. If the input contains forms and structures
just beyond the learner’s current level of competence in the
language (“i+1”), then both comprehension and acquisition will
occur.
Instrumental
Motivation
(工具型動機):
The motivation for second language learning is more practical, such
as the need to learn the language in order to get a better job.
Integrative
Motivation
(融合型動機):
The motivation for second language learning is based on a desire to
know more about the culture and community of the target language
group and even a desire to be more like members of that group.
Intelligence
(智力):
Traditionally, intelligence refers to the mental abilities that are
measured by an IQ (intelligence quotient) test. It usually measures
two types of intelligence: verbal/linguistic and
mathematical/logical intelligence. There are, however, other types
of intelligence such as spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and
intrapersonal intelligence (cf.
Aptitude).
Interactoinism
(互動論):
A theory that language acquisition is based both on learners’ innate
abilities and on opportunities to engage in conversations, often
those in which other speakers modify their speech to match the
learners’ communication requirements. The innate abilities are not
seen as being specific to language or language acquisition.
Interlanguage
(外語學習過程中的過渡性語言，即發展尚未完全的第二語言):
The learner’s developing second language knowledge. It may have
characteristics of the learner’s first language, characteristics of
the second language, and some characteristics which see to be very
general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems.
Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic,
continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their
hypotheses about the second language.
Judgments of
Grammaticality
(文法判斷能力):
Responses to the question ‘Is this a correct [or acceptable]
sentence of English [or another language]?’ In answering such
questions, we are asked to focus on the form (grammar) of the
sentence rather than on its meaning.
L1
(母語):
The language first learned. Also called first language.
L2
(第二外語):
Any language other than the first language learned. Also called
second language.
Language
Acquisition
(語言習得):
This term is often used interchangeably with language learning.
However, for some researchers, most notably Krashen, acquisition is
contrasted with learning (see
acquisition-learning hypothesis). According to Krashen,
acquisition represents ‘unconscious’ learning, which takes place
when attention is focused on meaning rather than language form.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
(語言習得機制):
A metaphor for the innate knowledge of the ‘universal’ principles
common to all human languages. The presence of this knowledge
permits children to discover the structure of a given language on
the basis of a relatively small amount of input.
Language
Learning
(語言學習):
This term is a general one which simply refers to a learner’s
developing knowledge of the target language. In Krashen’s terms,
however, ‘learning’ is contrasted with ‘acquisition’, and is
described as a conscious process which occurs when the learner’s
objective is to learn about the language itself, rather than to
understand messages which are conveyed through the language (see
also
acquisition-learning hypothesis).
Learning Style
(學習方式):
an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing,
processing, and retaining new information and skills. It can be
thought of as cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that
are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact
with, and respond to the learning environment.
Learning
Strategy
(學習策略):
Specific methods or techniques of approaching a problem or task that
learners employ in the learning environment.
Longitudinal Study
(縱深研究法:針對單一個體或群體進行長時期的研究):
A study in which the same learners are studied over a period of
time. This contrasts with a
cross-sectional study.
Metalinguistic
Awareness
(後設語言知覺):
The ability to treat language as an object, for example, being able
to define a word, or to say what sounds make up that word.
Modified Input
(修飾過之輸入語言):
Adapted speech which adults use to address children and native
speakers use to address language learners so that the learner will
be able to understand. Examples of modified input include shorter,
simpler sentences, slower rate of speech, and basic vocabulary.
Monitor
Hypothesis
(監測器假說):
Krashen argues that the learned system, in contrast to the acquired
system, acts as an editor or “monitor”, making minor changes and
polishing what the acquired system has produced.
Morpheme
(詞素):
Morphemes are the smallest units of language that carry meaning. A
simple word is a morpheme (for example, ‘book’)
Native-like
(語言能力像母語者一樣的):
The ability to comprehend and produce a second language at a level
of performance which is hardly distinguishable from that of a native
speaker.
Native Speaker
(母語使用者):
A person who has learned a language from an early age and who has
full mastery of that language. Native speakers may differ in terms
of vocabulary and stylistic aspects of language use, but they tend
to agree on the basic grammar of the language.
Natural Order
Hypothesis
(語言自然發展順序假說):
Krashen argues that second language learners acquire the features of
the target language in predictable sequences. Also, the natural
order is independent of the order in which rules have been learned
in language classes (see also
developmental sequences).
Negotiation of
Meaning
(語言意義上之溝通):
Interaction between speakers who make adjustments to their speech
and use other techniques in order to facilitate communication.
Overgeneralization Error
(過度推想錯誤):
This type of error is the result of trying to use a rule in a
context where it does not belong, for example, putting a regular-ed
ending on an irregular verb, as in ‘buyed’ instead of ‘bought’.
Pattern Practice
Drill
(模式練習):
An audiolingual teaching technique in which learners are asked to
practice sentences chosen to represent particular linguistic forms.
Performance
(語言表現):
The language that we actually use in listening, speaking, reading,
writing. Performance is usually contrasted with
Competence, which is the knowledge which underlies our
ability to use language. Performance is subject to variations due
to inattention or fatigue whereas competence, at least for the
mature native speaker, is more stable.
Rate of
Development
(語言發展速度):
The speed at which learners progress in their language development.
Recast
(教師以正確語句重述學生所說含有錯誤的話):
Recasts involve the teacher’s reformulation of all or part of a
student’s utterance, minus the error. Recasts are generally
implicit.
Second Language
(第二語言):
Any language other than the first language learned. The abbreviation
L2 is often used.
Significant
Difference
(顯著差異):
This is a technical term which refers to differences between groups
which, according to a variety of statistical tests, could not be due
to chance. Such differences can be small or large. Their
‘significance’ is due to the consistency of the differences as well
as its size.
Simplification
(簡化):
Leaving out elements of a sentence, as when all verbs have the same
form regardless of person, number, tense, for example, ‘I go today.
He go yesterday.’
Structural
Grading
(根據文法結構難易設計教材):
A technique for organizing or sequencing material in a textbook or
lessons. The basis for the organization is a gradual increase in
complexity of grammatical features.
Substitution
Drill (替換練習):
An
audiolingual teaching technique in which learners practice
sentences, changing one element at a time, for example, ‘I read a
book’; ‘I read a newspaper; ‘I read a story’.
Subtractive
Bilingualism
(負向雙語學習):
The first language is partially or completely lost as a second
language is acquired. This is often the result of learning a second
language when one’s first language skills are not fully developed
(cf.
Additive Bilingualism).
Target Language
(目標語言；正在學習之語言):
The language which is being learned, whether it is the first
language or a second (or third or fourth) language.
Task-based
Instruction
(以活動為主之教學):
Instruction in which classroom activities are ‘tasks’ similar to
those which learners might engage in outside the second or foreign
language classroom. Tasks may be complex, for example, creating a
school newspaper, or more limited, for example, making a phone call
to reserve a train ticket.
Total Physical
Response (TPR)
(全身肢體反應教學法):
In TPR classes, students are not required to say anything but just
listen and show their comprehension by doing actions according to
what the teacher says in the target language, for example, “stand
up”, “sit down” “pick up the book”, “put the book on the table”,
“walk to the door”. TPR was developed by James Asher (1972), whose
research has shown that students can develop quite advanced levels
of comprehension in the language without engaging in oral practice.
Transfer
(移轉：將母語之用法移轉到第二語言):
Learner’s use of patterns of the first language in second language
sentences. Also called ‘interference’.
Universal
Grammar (UG)
(普遍語法):
Children’s innate linguistic knowledge which, it is hypothesized,
consists of a set of principles common to all language. This term
has replaced the earlier term
language acquisition device based on Chomsky’s theory of
language acquisition.
Uptake
(顉會):
A learner’s immediate response to corrective feedback on his/her
utterances.
Variational
Features
(變動性之語言特質):
In contrast to the
developmental features in the framework developed by Pienemann
and his colleagues, variational features (for example, vocabulary,
some grammatical morphemes) can be learned at any point in the
learner’s development.
Z
Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD)
(潛在發展區):
The level of performance which a learner is capable of when there is
support from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor,
hypothesized by Vygotsky.
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